The Illyrians

Our knowledge on the Illyrians is based on ancient Greek and Latin scripts or inscriptions, and the archeological material discovered in the region where Illyrians had been living. The area in which the Illyrians used to live stretches from Croatia and Slovenia to the Albanian mountains and coast as well as Macedonia.
Whatever little information we have about them from the ancient sources, is partially biased, since the Romans and the Greeks used every opportunity they had to extend their commercial and political influence on that region. Greek and Roman historiographers described the Illyrians as “ferocissimae gentes” and “latrones”. There are few authors who wrote objectively about them, and even less wrote sympathetically. Among those is an unknown writer of the end of the second century B.C. who is known among scholars as “Pseudoskymnos” whose work is entitled “Periegesis”.
He wrote about the Illyrians as a people full of virtues, having a profound respect for their gods, just, and hospitable.

The Illyrian name

According to an ancient Greek legend recorded by Apollodoros, Illyrios, the founder of the Illyrians, was the son of the Phoenician Cadmus, and his wife Harmonia. Cadmus’s father Agenor ordered him to go in search of his sister, Europa, who had been abducted by Zeus. Cadmus went to search for his sister. Afraid to return without his sister, he reached Boeotia, in Greece where he and his companion founded the city of Thebes. There Cadmus married Harmonia, daughter of Ares, god of war and Aphrodite. Cadmus was later told by the oracle to go and dwell among the Illyrian tribe of Encheleians and become their king. A son was born and named Illyrios. In this way the Illyrians got their name. Cadmus and his wife having grown old, they were turned into serpents and were sent to live in the Elysian fields. This is the story of how the Illyrians entered the mythology of Ancient Greece. In the legend of Cadmus, Illyrios is associated closely with the serpent. It was a serpent that wound itself around him as soon as he was born, transferring its magical power to him. Philologists have tried to associate the word serpent with the word Illyrian. O. Gruppe, a German was first to see a connection between the word Illyrios and the Greek Illw, meaning to “turn, wind”, and the root of the same word means to turn around. Karel Ostir a Slovenian philologist also claimed that there is a snake in the word Illyrian. He found that among the Hittites the word for a large mythical serpent was “Illurjanka” evident similar to the word Illyrian itself. This is not such a coincidence considering the important role the serpent has in the religion of the Illyrians.
There are explanations for the word Illyrian. According to Julius Pokorny the Illyrians were the people inhabiting near the River Iller (a tributary of the Danube at the town of Ulm in Southern Germany). Another explanation is often cited is that of Ciro Truhelka, according to whom the word Illyrian can be explained by the Albanian word I lir, which means “a freeman”

Boundaries

Regarding the boundaries of the Illyrians we have to look closer to the ancient accounts, since they were in direct contact and could be able to delineate their boundaries with much more precision than we can today. The earliest information about the Illyrian population along the Adriatic is found in the works of the Greek poet, Alcaeus of Mitylene. In the works of the Greek logographer, Hecataeus of Miletus(500 B. C) there is the earliest description of a journey along the Adriatic. This description is preserved in fragments and many important bits are missing. He is the first one to mention the Liburnians, Mentors, Histris, and other Illyrian tribes, some that never appeared again in recorded works, for example the Hythmites.
The most important classical writer who mentioned the boundaries of the Illyrian lands is Appian. According to Appian:

The Greeks maintained that the Illyrians were those peoples who inhabited areas beyond Macedonia and Thrace, i.e. from the borders of the Chaonians and the Thesprotians as far as the River Istros(Danube). This could account for the length of Illyria while the width would be from the Macedonian and Thracian hills to Peon(Pannonia), to the Ionic Sea(Adriatic), and the fringe of the Alps. Or, as the Greeks put it: five days wide and thirty days long. But the Romans, having mapped this country, established that it was more than 6000 stadia long and about 1200 wide.(Appianus,Historia Romana, Illyrike)

This passage was written in the second century A. D. During a period in which both the Greeks and the Romans by that time were familiar with the Illyrians. Strabo and Pliny give similar boundaries of the Illyrians.

The Illyrian Tribes

It can be said that the majority of the Illyrians during those times were not aware that they belonged to a wider ethnic group as we know them today, the Illyrians. They certainly knew that they belonged to a tribe. It is believed that the Illyrians numbered around seventy tribes, these are found from the different inscriptions and ancient sources. These are the names of the most significant tribes starting from the South and moving Northwards:

Atintani, Chaones, Molossi, Taulanti, Helidoni, Sesareti, Abri, Partini, Encheleae, Dassaretae, Penestae, Pirustae, Albans, Autariatae, Scirtones, Docleates, Melcumani, Deraemistae, Pleraei, Ardiaei, Daorsi, Dalmatae,Daesitiates, Dindari, Deuri, Deretini, Maezaei, Amantini, Breuci, Oseriates, etc etc...

The first recorded contact between any of the Illyrian tribes and the Greeks is provided by Strabo, from which it appears in 734 B. C. Hersicrates, the Corinthian Bacchant, successfully drove out the Liburni from Corfu. This shows that having held this strategically point in the Mediterranean, beyond the Adriatic Sea, the Liburni had a significant naval strength. This is also the oldest documented confrontation between the Greeks and the Illyrians. This is one of the first series of wars with main objective the control of the maritime route along the Adriatic. The Greeks from the south and the Italic tribes from the west were putting great pressure to the Liburnians who defied the increasing sea power of the Greeks. During that time the Greeks did not dare to establish their trading posts and colonies. Only later when the Liburni were losing significant power the Greeks established colonies along the Illyrian coast.

Greek Colonization

The establishment of the Greek Colonies was one of the most significant events in the history of the Illyrian tribes. It brought them to contact with a very advanced civilization, which helped the material and spiritual culture of the Illyrians. By the year 627 B.C., Greeks from Corcyra founded the town of Epidamnos, which Romans later renamed it Dyrrhachium. In 588 B.C. the Corcyrians and the Corinthians founded together Apollonia. These colonies turned out to be excellent disseminators of Greek culture and technology among the Illyrians. Recent systematic research has revealed an enormous quantity of material research, which throws a completely new light on the role played by the Greek colonies on the variety of activities among Illyrians. The names of the native inhabitants on coins and gravestones, which were discovered in Dyrrhachium and Apollonia, show that the process of “Illyrianisation” had so permeated these Greek colonies that by the third century B.C. they had, from an ethnic point of view, lost the character of Hellenic colonies.
A more widespread colonization occurred at the beginning of the forth century B.C. Dionysus the Elder from Syracuse established Issa(on the island of Vis), between 397 and 390 B.C. He also assisted colonists from the island of Paros in the Aegean to found the colony of Pharos, on the site of the present day Starigrad, on the island of Hvar(385-384 B.C.) Issaians after the death of Dionysus became completely independent politically, and played an important role in the region, establishing their own trading
centers. They founded during the third century B.C. trading posts like the Tragurion(present day Tragir) and Epetion (south of Split). During the second century B.C., they founded another trading post at Salona (Solin near Split, adjoining the Illyrian settlement already existing there.
In addition to those mentioned there were others which is little known. In the central part of Dalmatia there was a town called Heraclea, which minted its own coinage. It is believed that Greek colonization activities accounted for the cities of Olcinium (Ulcinj today) and Epidaurum (now Cavtat). It is also known that some other places were in fact Greek trading posts, although not established by the Greeks nor later Hellenised, such as Buthoe (today Budva on the Montenegrin coast).
There is no record on how the native population on the island of Vis greeted the newcomer colonists from Syracuse. It appears that they did not want to cause problems there. On the contrary when the Greeks were founding Pharos, the Illyrians reacted. Illyrians from the island of Hvar, summoned help from their fellow countrymen living on the mainland. Some 10,000 Illyrians hurried to support them with their small crafts. The Greeks in Pharos realized they could not be able to cope with such a powerful enemy, appealed to the people of Issa for help. The later sent a flotilla of triremes, which easily broke the formation of the small craft and annihilated them. This was the first recorded battle between the Greek colonists and the Illyrians.

The first organized Illyrian States:
The Encheleae

The oldest organized state was achieved in southern Illyria by the Encheleae. This reference comes in the realms of mythology rather than history. The arrival of the Phoenician Cadmus and his wife Harmonia among the Encheleae has already been mentioned before. According to the legend the Encheleae were fighting other Illyrian tribes. Cadmus as advised by the oracle went to their assistance, and after defeating the other Illyrians, was proclaimed as their king.
As with many other legends this one reflected events that actually took place. Archeologists and Historians, on the basis of the numerous records, archeological, historical and linguistic came along to the conclusion that there existed a cultural exchange between the Southern parts of Illyria, Aegean and Near east. Via Egnatia was a route used by distant traders and travelers from Phenicia and Near east to reach the Adriatic. A tangible proof of the presence of the Phoenicians among the Encheleae and other southern Illyrians are the numerous bronze axes of the so called Albano-Dalmation type which, by their similarity could only be related to axes from Near east. Also the existence of the ancient town of Phoenice in Southern Albania is a reminder of the presence of the Phoenicians in the South of Illyria.
The Encheleae reached the climax of their power during the eighth-seventh century B.C. By the sixth century their importance was declining, although the state disappeared from the historical scene only in the fourth century B.C.

The Taulanti

One of the main reasons of the decline of the Encheleae was the increasing power of the neighboring Taulanti with whom they coexisted for some time. The Taulanti had their settlements in the hinterland of the Greek Colony of Epidamnus. Although when they were at their height, their territory spread over a wider area in central and northern Albania. In the works of the Greek writers, the Taulanti were noted on their wars they waged against Macedonia, Epirus, and the Greek colonies on the Illyrian coast.. The earliest report of the Taulanti related to a war, is that during the seventh century between their leader Gaularos against the Macedonian King Argeios in the seventh century B.C.
In the fifth century B.C. the Taulanti were indirectly involved in an incident that led to the bloody Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta. In 437 B.C. the city oligarchy of Epidamnos, who held the trade monopoly with the Illyrians, were driven out of the city and, taking refuge with the Taulanti, appealed for their help. The city of Epidamnos fearing the Taulanti, turned first to Corcyra for help, and when they refused they tried Corinth. The Corinthians sent ships to the aid of Epidamnos, but the fleet was defeated by the Corcyrians who meantime had sided against Epidamnos. Thus Epidamnos surrendered. The position of the Taulanti was strengthened by this alliance with Corcyra so much, that they began to interfere in the affairs of the Greek colonies and their other neighbors, particularly the Macedonians.
The State of the Taulanti reached the heights of its power in the forth century B.C., but at the end of that century it declined rapidly. This has to do with the increasing power of the Macedonians and the intrusions of the Celtic tribes.

The wars with the Macedonians

During the forth Century B.C. the Macedonians were growing in strength. This meant the increase of clashes between the Macedonians and the Illyrian neighbors. In the year 360 B.C., the Illyrians attacked the Macedonians again after previously having succeeded in obtaining tribute from them. Macedonian King Perdiccas got defeated and was killed in the battlefield along 4000 other Macedonians. The Illyrians occupied western part of Macedonia and were threatening the very core of the Macedonian state. Philip II who succeeded Perdiccas gathered a large army against the Illyrian King Bardyllus, and forced him to withdraw from the territories previously obtained.
Enlarged and strengthened the Macedonians presented a great danger not only to the Illyrians, but the other Greek city states, and neighbors. The Athenians endangered sought alliance among Macedonia’s neighbors. In fact in 356 B.C. the Thracians, Paeones and Illyrians, on the initiative of the Athenians formed an alliance against the Macedonians. To commemorate this alliance a marble stele was erected in Athens. On it the name of the Illyrian ruler Grabos is mentioned. Philip in defiance sent his military leader Parmenion to wage war against the Illyrians. The defeat curtailed their power.
Meantime the Athenians were not idle. Demosthenes delivered his famous speech the Philippics, against the Macedonian King and warned the people of Athens of the Macedonian threat. As a fact he went to Illyria in search of allies. This was not so fruitful since the Illyrians were struggling against Philip till his death in 336 B.C.
Philip’s son Alexander the Great continued to wage wars against the Illyrians. Alexander was compelled to repel an attack by the king of the Encheleae, Kleitos, the son of Bardyllus, who with Glaucias had attacked the Greeks. Alexander defeated them and from that time the Encheleae recognized his power and avoided further military confrontations during his reign.
Cassander one of Alexander’s successors fought against King Glaucias, and in 314 B.C. reached the Illyrian coast and succeeded in occupying the Greek colonies of Epidamnos and Apollonia. Due to the interior problems Macedonia faced, this occupation was very short and Cassander had to return to his own country, while concluding a peace treaty with Glaucias. In consequence Epidamnos and Apollonia soon threw off Macedonian rule.

The Celtic Invasions

About the time the Greeks were pursuing their bold policy of establishing colonies in the Eastern Adriatic, the warlike Celts were making their way through the Balkan peninsula from the Alpine regions, and Northen Italy, thrusting their way through the Illyrians in the first half of the forth century B.C. Armed with swords much longer than those used by the Illyrians, on their horses overwhelmed the disunited Illyrian tribes. Their main objective was Greece in general, and more specifically the wealth of Delphi.
During their advances towards Greece, the Macedonian State was strong, and as long as they remained strong the Celts did not dare to cross it. They remained on standby in the country of the Illyrians, awaiting for better days, meantime engaging in fights with the Illyrian tribes. Little information is given about these battles. Theopompus recorded an episode between the Celts and the Ardiaei. He describes the cunning of the Celts in overcoming the enemy. The Celts aware of the need the Ardiaei had for food and drink withdrew from their camp, leaving in a very conspicuous place much food and drink mixed with poisonous weeds .Unsuspecting the Ardiaei came to the abandoned camp and fell on the viands, oblivious of the enemy. Then the Celts returned and overwhelmed them with ease.
They settled in the area of the great Pannonian rivers and developed their agriculture, pottery, mining and metal-work in particular. Becoming stronger, they pushed their way westwards, especially towards the land inhabited by the Iapodes. According to ancient writers such as Strabo and Dionysius of Halicarnassus the Celts intermingled with the Iapodes.
While they were occupying the interior of the Balkan peninsula the Celts never forgot their main purpose. It was several decades later after Alexander’s death at a time that Macedonia did not pose the same threat, that the Celts decided to move forward. In 280 B.C. three Celtic armies advanced towards Greece. They chose a good time for this operation, since the only one capable of withstanding them was the King of Epirus Pyrrhus, who happened to be with his army in Italy.
At that time king of Macedonia was Ptolemy and he underestimated the attackers, and refused the offer of 20,000 soldiers by the Dardanian king. This proved to be costly. The Celtic army led by Belgios routed the Macedonians, killing Ptolemy himself on the battlefield. Belgios did not continue the advance towards Greece. This was carried out by other two Celtic armies led by Brennos and Akichorios. According to Pausanias their armies totaled 152,000 foot-soldiers and 20,000 horsemen. The Greeks decided to resist the Celts at the very spot 200 years ago the Spartans resisted the Persians: the Thermopylae. The united Greek armies in 279 B.C. succeeded against the Celts. They annihilated the Celts. Brennos was gravely wounded into the battle and witnessing the destruction of his army, committed suicide, while Akichorios led the remnants of his army northwards. Many Celts escaped towards Asia Minor, while those fleeing towards the North had to make superhuman efforts to reach safety. Over there, the Illyrians, who had not forgotten their ruthlessness on their way to Greece, were waiting to pay them back.


The Dardani

The political and military role of the Dardani became significant after the Celtic invasions, which had weakened the Macedonians, and their neighbors the Paeones. They took advantage of this to extend control, not only in Paeonia, but Southern Illyria as well. As long as the Macedonians were vulnerable the, Dardani used every opportunity to attack them especially during the second half of the third century B.C and at the beginning of the second.
This did not last long enough though. That is because the source of their power was more the weakness of others rather than their strength. Indeed, as long as the Macedonians recovered, their political importance decreased, and their warlike activities were limited. The reason why the Dardani never played a bigger role in the area is that during that time they had not reached the necessary level of social development for a well-organized state. They were composed by tribes without a powerful central authority. Also during that time the strong Macedonian state was followed by a better organized power, the Romans, who did not let room for others to increase their power.

The Illyrian State

The Illyrian state was considered from the classical sources, Illyrian opposed to Dardanian , Taulanti, etc, where its rulers were referred as Illyrians. According to Fanula Papazoglu, the Illyrian Kingdom began towards the end of the 5th Century B.C. with King Sirrhas, and continued without a break till the 2nd century B.C., when the Romans took prisoner the last of the Illyrian Kings, Genthios. The most glorious pages of Illyrian history began with the rule of King Pleuratus, around 260 B.C., and was continued with the rule of his son Agron. During this time the Illyrian state found itself in the center between Macedonia, Issa, and various northern Greek political unions and the new factor emerging in the area, Rome.
Demetrious II, the Macedonian King, who was waging war against the Dardani requested that Agron intervene in the fighting between the Aetoli, and the Acarnani. Agron with an army of 5,000 soldiers went to help Demetrious’ allies the Acarnani. The Illyrian army in a fierce battle in Medion destroyed the Aetolian army. It was one of the most glorious victories of an Illyrian army over a Greek one. It greatly enhanced the prestige of the Illyrian arms in the eyes of the Greeks and the Macedonians.
Unfortunately Agron died after this expedition. His successor was Pinnes, the son with his first wife Triteuta. He was still a minor, thus the real control was in the hands of his stepmother, Teuta. Unfortunately she did not know how to maintain the strength and unity of the state. She yielded to the pressure of the discontented chieftains, and allowed piracy, which her predecessors had curbed. It is possible that in order to satisfy the chieftains, she undertook the first military expedition against the Greeks, in 230 B.C. She sent about 100 ships to plunder Elis and Messenia, on the Peloponnesian peninsula. Immediately after, she waged war against the Epirots, who had sided with the Aetoli in the war against the Macedonians and the Illyrians. The Illyrians took without difficulty the town of Pheonike (Finiq, near Saranda in present Albania). When the other Epirot tribes heard of this, they hurried to repel the Illyrian invaders, but its strong fortifications enabled the defense to resist with ease. In order to help the besieged Illyrians, Scerdilaidas, Pinne’s uncle marched towards Phoinike with five thousand soldiers. Part of the Epirot force went to stop this advance near the town of Antigonea. Because of the reduced strength of the Epirot forces, the Illyrians were able to break the siege. This was another defeat for the Epirot army.
While the Illyrians were fighting in Epirus, the Dardani, who until then were waging a series of wars against the Macedonians, turned against Teuta. She ordered Scerdilaidas to return. Before leaving Epirus, he made a very profitable agreement, in which the Epirots became almost dependent on the Illyrian state. The Acarnani, in gratitude for the Illyrian help in their struggle against the Aetoli, also made an agreement accepting Illyrian suzerainty.
After the Dardanian threat was removed, Teuta continued her policy of expansion and directed her energy on the Greek colonies along the Illyrian coast and islands. The Illyrians laid siege to Issa, and when the colony realized that it could not rely on the assistance from the Greeks on the mainland, it turned for help to Rome. The Senate of Rome having already received complaints from Italic and Greek traders concerning attacks on their vessels in the Adriatic by Illyrian pirates, decided to send representatives. The emissaries were the brothers Gaius and Lucius Coruncanius. A Greek from Issa, named Kleemporos joined them. They demanded that she ceases military operations against Issa and piracy against Italic and Greek trading ships. According to Polybius, Teuta unaware of the power of Rome replied that she will try to see that the Illyrians did not cause trouble to the Romans, but she did not promise she could prevent piracy, since this was their own private affair. The Roman emissaries displeased, responded that Rome would protect its subjects against Illyrian pirates and would also press the Illyrian authorities to amend their laws. The Roman emissaries and the Greek one were ambushed on their way back to Rome. It is not known whether the Queen knew about this, or was the one to order this attack in which one Roman and the Greek, Kleemporos were murdered. For the Roman Senate the assassination was a pretext for a direct involvement in the Balkan peninsula.
Nevertheless Teuta’s objective did not change. Even though she sent envoys to Rome attempting to appease the Romans, she kept attacking the Greek colonies in the Adriatic and Ionian sea. She sent a fleet against Dyrrachium. Failing to capture the place, she sent an army against Corcyra. The Greek colonies under attacked asked for help from the Greeks from the mainland. Only the Achaeans responded by sending ten heavy warships against the Illyrians. A big naval battle took place near the island of Paxos. Even though the Achaeans were reinforced by seven ships of the Acarnanians they suffered a great defeat. The Illyrians then captured the town of Corcyra with ease. Then they turned against Dyrrachium once again. At the same time the Romans were getting ready for an attack on the Illyrians.
In the spring of 229 B.C. a force of 20,000 soldiers, 2000 horsemen and 200 warships was assembled in Brundisium. This force attacked the Illyrians as their army was besieging Dyrrachium. The Roman fleet led by Gneus Fulvius Centumalus sailed first towards Corcyra, where Demetrius offered no resistance, and surrendered the town to the Romans, at the same time offering his own services. From there the Romans sailed on to Apollonia, then Dyrrachium, and after, Issa and Pharos. At the same time the Roman army was operating in Southern Illyria gaining significant successes. Some tribes e.g the Atintani and the Parthini sent envoys to Rome to be accepted as their allies.
Teuta withdrew to the fortified town of Rhizon. She realized that the resistance would be useless, thus she sued for peace. The peace terms were very harsh for the Queen and the Illyrian state. She had to abdicate in favor of Pinnes, while her Kingdom was put partly under the control of Rome. The Greek colonies were under the Roman protection. Illyrian armed vessels were forbidden to sail south of Lissos(today’s Lezha in Northern Albania).
One man who took advantage of this situation was Demetrius of Pharos. He sided with Rome without hesitation. With their help he achieved control over his native Pharos. His most important role was the one he played in the Illyrian court itself. He married Triteuta, the mother of Pinnes, thus becoming the most influential person of the Illyrian state.
On the other hand, the Romans knew they were not ready yet to subdue the Illyrians, but they made use of their intervention in the Balkans for their own political gains. The Romans wanted to give the Greeks the impression that they were the protectors of their interests. The Roman Senate sent messages to the Athenians and other Greeks that not only Italic, but also Greek ships could sail freely in the Adriatic. The Greeks thinking that they had found an ally against the Illyrians, in gratitude allowed the Romans to attend the Isthmian Games.
The second confrontation between the Illyrians and the Romans took place some ten years later. Demetrius of Pharos who once was a faithful vassal of Rome had began to take into account more the Illyrian interests than those of the Romans. He made an alliance with the Macedonian ruler, Antigonus Doson, and then his successor Philip V. He realized that a strong alliance with the Macedonians could curb the Roman influence in the region. He helped the Macedonians to increase their strength in Greece. He even led military expeditions against the tribal allies of Rome in Illyria, and even attacked Greek towns in the Aegean with his fleet.
The Roman Senate not pleased with the events in Illyria ordered Demetrius in Rome to explain his actions. Demetrius turned a deaf ear to the Senate. In 219 B.C. a powerful Roman army led by both consuls, Lucius Aemilius Paullus and M.Livius Salinator, was sent against him. Demetrius took refuge in the town of Dimallum. After seven days of fierce battle the Romans managed to occupy the town. Demetrius then left to his native town of Pharos, where he hoped to resist the attackers more successfully. The Romans defeated him in front of Pharos. Demetrius again managed to escape. He fled to the neighboring Macedonia, where he was welcomed by Philip V.
This defeat was another blow for the Illyrian state. Scerdilaidas who had parted from Demetrius before it was too late succeeded in preserving the Illyrian Kingdom, but he was compelled to recognize the Romans as allies.
When in 217 B.C., Pinnes died at the age of fifteen, Scerdilaidas remained at the helm of the ship of the state. He was a faithful Roman vassal, and protected Roman interests in the Balkans, especially against the Macedonians. Plauratus who succeeded him on the throne was also loyal to Rome. This was not the case for Genthios, who succeeded him in 180 B.C. Misjudging the political situation, and the balance of powers he renewed associations with Macedonia. Rome did not want to have un-trustworthy vassals, that with every opportunity could side with their enemies. They decided to mount an operation that could bring an end to the Illyrian Kingdom. In 168 B.C. the Roman commander, Lucius Anicius Gallus, led a force of 30,000 soldiers towards the fortified town of Scodra, the main city of the Illyrian Kingdom where the King had taken refuge. Genthios could not withstand the siege and after thirty days surrendered. He and his entire family were taken to Gubbium.
After having disposed Genthios, Lucius Anicius Gallus summoned the Illyrian tribal chiefs in 167 B.C. to Scodra, and there he pronounced, in the name of Senate and the people of Rome, those tribes and towns which had sided with Rome before the fall of Genthios were free and no longer had to pay taxes. He was referring to the Taulanti, Pirusti, Daorsi, and the towns of Rhizon, Olcinium and Lissos.
While southern Illyrian states were subdued, the Dalmatae continued their struggle against Rome in the post-Genthios period. The Dalmatae, a bellicose tribe were attacking the Issaian colonies of Tragurion, Epetion, and Salona after they had settled around the area in the third and second centuries B.C. They also attacked the Daorsi, who acknowledged the authority of Rome. The Romans wanted to settle this matter peacefully, therefore they sent Gaius Fanius, and other representatives to the capital of Dalmatae. Not only they refused to see him, or offer hospitality, moreover it appears that the emissaries were attacked and their Daorsian and Issaian escorts were killed.
This action aggravated the Romans. In 156 B.C. the Roman consul, Gaius Marcius Figul landed with his army in Narona. He then marched towards Delminium, after he was initially repulsed. Delminium was fortified and well defended, and Figul was unable to capture it. The following year the Senate replaced him by another consul, Cornelius Scipio Nasica, who after first attacking other Dalmatian towns turned to Delminium itself, which fell after fierce fighting. This though it is not the last time that these two confront each other.
While some Illyrian tribes recognized Roman authority other Illyrian tribes opposed it. The Ardiae, the Pleraei, the Histri, the Iapodes and the Dalmatae continued the resistance against Rome. After the first Illyro-Roman war in 229 B.C. the Romans twenty years later took a decisive campaign against the Ardiea and their neighbors the Pleraei. The Ardiae played an important role when the Illyrian state was at its heights, and maybe this could have been one of the reasons that stopped Teuta from limiting their piracy. The Ardiae even though, primary were stopped by the Romans they continued their piratical operations in later years. They attacked those areas which were under the Roman rule, thus inevitably bringing the Roman reaction. In 135 B.C. an army of 10,000 foot-soldiers and 600 horsemen led by the consul, Servius Fulvius Flaccus, marched against the tribe of Ardiae and overwhelmed them. In order to prevent further piracy the Romans pushed them further inland, and as Strabo tells us they were obliged to take up agriculture instead. Not being accustomed to the new way of life in harsh climatic conditions, they gradually died out. Pliny the elder in the first century A.D. wrote about them, that were very few members of the Ardiae tribe left.
While waging war against the Southern Illyrians the Romans simultaneously began military operations against the tribe along the northern coasts of the Adriatic. Just like the other tribes, the Histri could not avoid confrontations with the Romans.
In order to strengthen the line of defense against the Illyrian tribes the Romans founded the colony of Aquileia. The Histri saw this as a threat, therefore in 181 B.C. they tried to prevent it from being built. Roman pretor, Q. Fabius Buteo successfully repulsed them. Peace was restored until king, Aepulo came to the throne, who as a bellicose individual was preparing for war against Rome. He was defeated in northern Istria, and withdrew his forces into the fortified Nesactium. In order to overcome their defense the Romans altered the flow of a rivulet, thus depriving the Illyrians of drinking water. When the Illyrians realized that they were unable to repel the Roman attacks, they decided to die rather than surrender their town to the enemy. The Histri were killing their wives and children and throwing their bodies over the city walls, while continuing to fight fiercely to the last man. Aepulo sensing the final debacle, killed himself with his own sword. After the fall of Nesactium other Histrian towns came under the Roman rule. This strengthened their position in the northern Adriatic.
After the Histri the Iapodes were next to feel closer the Roman threat. From Aquileia the Romans were launching military operations against the Illyrians eastwards. In 129 B.C. the historian and orator Caius Sempronius Tuditanus led an army against the Iapodes, where he managed to bring them, along the Liburni under his control. Ten years later the Romans were forced to wage new war against the Iapodes. They managed to get under their rule most of the Illyrian tribes except the Dalmatae.
While the Illyrians were fighting on and off the Romans, they were also fighting against each other, in spite the fact that they were threatened by a common enemy. Moreover some of this tribes found this as an opportunity to square some old accounts with their own neighbors, inviting the Romans to intervene on their behalf. This is illustrated by an incident which occurred in the year 50 B.C. The Dalmatae had attacked the Liburni tribe because of the town of Promona. The later, unable to repel the attack invoked Caesar’s help. The Romans responded by sending an army against the Dalmatae which was beaten. In 48-47 B.C. Caesar sent another army under the leadership of Aulus Gabinus, which did not have a different luck. The confrontation took place near the town of Synodium, and the Romans were almost completely destroyed. Aulus Gabinius managed to escape to Salona where he died. The proconsul Publius Vatinius, in 45 B.C. led more Roman armies against the Dalmatae in Salona. Even though he managed to capture some of their fortifications he never succeeded in bringing the Dalmatae to their knees. After the assassination of Caesar, Balbius marched against them in 44 B.C. This defeat proved to be costly not just for his Roman army but his life as well. The Dalmatae managed to recapture Salona. They did not have to worry about the Romans until the year 39 B.C., since the Romans were too busy with their civil war that flared after the assassination of Caesar. Octavianus and Antonius sent Roman legions lead by the poet Asinius Pollio. He managed to recapture the town of Salona from the Dalmatae. Asinius Pollio, even with this victory did not bring the Dalmatae to heel. Nevertheless he celebrated this triumph on his return from Illyria to Rome, and even named his son, Salonius, in honor of the conquest of Salona.
Few Years later the Illyrians had to face Octavianus himself. In 35 B.C. he opened a campaign against the Iapodes, and they, one after another were falling into the Roman hands. The strongholds of Monetium, Avendo, Arupium, and Terponus all fell. Octavianus then attacked Metulum, the center of the Iapodes. While attacking Metulum, Octavianus himself was wounded. Nevertheless the Romans managed to conquer Metulum. From there he marched to capture Siscia, with the intention of making it a base to attack the Dacians, and other Pannonian tribes. Having achieved his plan, he returned to Rome leaving Fufius Geminus at the base of Siscia.
In 34 B.C. Octavianus returned to attack the Dalmatae. The Illyrians, realizing that it could be difficult to confront such a powerful enemy in an opened front, they decided to wage a guerilla warfare against them, while at the same time they increased the fortifications of their strongholds of defense. The leader of the Dalmatae Verzo, after capturing the town of Promona from the Liburni tribe, installed himself with his twelve thousand troops in order to intercept the Roman legions. The Roman army reached the vicinity of the town, and they attacked it after having captured the hills first. Testimos another leader of the Dalmatae hastened to help the besieged Promona, but the Romans prevented him from reaching the town. Verzo had to surrender to the enemy. Testimos though, kept harassing the Roman troops with guerilla tactics, but Octavianus was deterred to advance. He captured the towns of Synodium and Andetrium. Finally Octavianus approached Setovia, where the heart of the Dalmatae army was stationed to confront them. Under the walls of Setovia they were destined to fight their ultimate war for their freedom. Once again Octavianus was wounded in a fierce skirmish, and he was obliged to hand over the leadership to Statilius Taurus, and temporary had to leave to Rome. At the beginning of 33 B.C. Octavianus returned back. Setovia was already struggling for food. When Octavianus reappeared in the battlefield, the Dalmatae decided to surrender. The Romans imposed difficult conditions on them. The Dalmatae had to pay tribute to the Romans and return the captured Roman eagles when they had defeated Aulus Gabinius. In addition they had to provide seven hundred youths as hostages.
Upon his return to Rome, Octavianus built a large library from the spoils of the wars he had lead against the Illyrians. He named the library “Octaviana” in honor of his sister Octavia. Sporadic revolts against the Romans took place in Illyria after Octavianus expeditions, but none was major or significantly successful.

The Baton's uprising

The last effort to turn the Romans out of Illyria was made between 6 and 9 A.D. It is called the Baton's uprising, from the name of its two leaders.

Tiberius was recruiting men among the Daesitiates for war against the Germanic tribes. The leader of the rebellious Daesitites was Baton. Other Illyrian tribes soon joined them, most significantly that of the Breuci, with their king Pinnes, and their commander also named Baton. These two Batons for the first time in History managed to unite a large number of Illyrians against their common enemy.
The Baton of the Breuci tribe led his army against Sirmium, but was beaten back. The Daesitiates' Baton faced a similar fate against Salona. He was wounded under the walls of Salona, and abandoned his plan to capture the city. According the Suetonius the Batons' uprising was the most difficult war that Rome waged after the Carthagian Wars. The Romans thought that the Illyrian poeple numbered 800,000 men, out of which there were 200,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. Ceasar Augustus realizing the importance of this threat ordered Tiberious to conclude an early peace with the Markomans and the Kvadis, with whom he was at war, and redirect his army against Illyria. Tiberious though did not attack immediately. He idled his troops in Siscia, and waited for the Illyrians to weaken either by famine or other illnesses. Augustus did not like Tiberious tactics, thus he ordered Germanicus to assist him and fasten the attack. On the river Bathinus the Baton of the Breuci suffered a heavy defeat. This led to a disagreement amongst the Illyrian rebels. Pinnes the King of the Breuci wanted to continue the struggle against the Romans, but Baton, the leader of his army did not foresee a victory over such a powerful army. He advised his soldiers to surrender, which they did. In addition, they delivered up their own King, Pinnes to the Romans, and the Romans in return recognized Baton as their main chief of the Breuci tribe.
Baton, the leader of the Daesitiates having heard of this, hastened to Pannonia. There he managed to get the traitor to a tribal court, which proclaimed a death sentence on him. Nevertheless, this action of the Daesitiates Baton, did not make the Breuci join his army against the Romans. The Daesitiates and their leader had to return to Dalmatia and continue the fight against the Romans single-handedly.
The Illyrians made great use of their own difficult terrain for waging guerilla warfare. The Romans though managed to capture the towns of Splonum, Seretium and few others, although Germanicus met an unpleasant defeat near Raetinium. He was soon to be joined by Tiberius, and together they captured one after another the Illyrian towns. Baton and his soldiers took refuge in Andetrium . Tiberious managed to capture it, but not without suffering heavy losses.
The last resistance of the Illyrians took place in the town of Arduba. As the Romans were capturing the town, the Illyrian women took their children and, in order to avoid being enslaved by the enemy threw themselves into the fire that were raging all over Arduba. When Baton realized that further resistance was impossible, he surrendered. According to the historian Dio Cassius, Baton made no demands for himself, but asked that the lives of his soldiers be spared. When asked by Tiberius, why he rose against the Romans, Baton replied that it was because the Senate in Rome sent wolves rather than shepherds to govern the Illyrians. Tiberius spared his life, and sent him captive to Ravenna, where he died.
After almost three centuries of victories and losses the Illyrians succumbed to the superior and much better organized Roman legions. Unfortunately they did not work together against the enemy from the beginning, and the only time that they actually used an organized force against Rome was a little bit late. From henceforth, the Illyrians will be a part of the Roman Empire, where they will share its destiny.

A Summary from the book "The Illyrians History and Culture" of Dr. Alexandar Stipcevic.


Note: The Book contains more details on the life and culture of the Illyrians. The above is just a synopsis of the historical events. The blame for ommiting and/or any errors found on this page is all mine.

Vasil Gjika